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Introduction:
The species that I have chosen is the Killer Whale, or Orca (Orcinus orca)(1). Orcas are the largest member of the Delphinidae family, which is composed of all of the dolphins (4). Killer Whales are an exotic species as they are found in all of the World’s oceans, including around the United States. If you look at the map below, all of the dark blue areas are regions where Orcas are found. Killer Whales tend to prefer to live in colder water, as well as coastal waters (2). Killer Whales are also considered to be Wildlife, as they are non-domesticated animals.
The species that I have chosen is the Killer Whale, or Orca (Orcinus orca)(1). Orcas are the largest member of the Delphinidae family, which is composed of all of the dolphins (4). Killer Whales are an exotic species as they are found in all of the World’s oceans, including around the United States. If you look at the map below, all of the dark blue areas are regions where Orcas are found. Killer Whales tend to prefer to live in colder water, as well as coastal waters (2). Killer Whales are also considered to be Wildlife, as they are non-domesticated animals.
Social History/Domestication
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| Killer Whales are commonly featured in Tribal Art (source: http://science.kqed.org/quest/2011/07/20/why-killer-whales-don’t-eat-people-where-science-and-legend-meet/) |
Many fishermen considered Killer Whales to be threats, and nuisances because they ate their caught fish and destroyed fishing equipment (3). Many countries, like Norway and British Columbia, had laws that encouraged fisherman to hunt whales (4). Killer Whales are primarily harvested for their meat and oil (4). People have also used whales for their blubber (used in shoe polish, lipsticks, oil for oil lamps, perfume, candles, and soaps (7)), internal organs (a component of fertilizer, or can be used as bait), and for their hides (3). By 1981, the Japanese, Norwegians, and Soviets had harvested almost 6,000 orcas (3). Hunting was so prevalent, that during the late 1960’s and early 1970’s, 25% of whales captured showed signs of having been shot or injured by hunters (4).
Up until 1973, the U.S. Navy still wrote in its training manuals that orcas would “attack human beings at every opportunity (3).” By the late 1960’s, attitudes towards Killer Whales became more positive due to more orcas being displayed in aquaria globally. It was also due to the rise of the environmental movement, which helped increase the level of compassion, and for whales in society (4). Now, the International Whaling Commission (IWC) protects Orcas. The IWC was created in 1946, and is composed of 14 countries that regulate whaling in order to manage whale stocks. In 1986, the IWC declared a moratorium on whaling that is still in effect (3). Other legislation has included the U.S. Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA) of 1972, and the Endangered Species Act (ESA) of 1973.
Current Social Perceptions
A Killer Whale show gone amuck when Killer Whale eats a Pelican
(source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=52o5yV6G7tY)
Now, since commercial whaling is banned, we primarily use Killer whales as forms of entertainment in Aquariums, Marine Amusement parks (think SeaWorld), and in whale watching (3). Many Aquariums and Marine Parks use Killer Whales in a variety of entertainment shows. SeaWorld, for example, is well known for their different Killer Whale shows, starring their main character, an idolized Killer Whale named “Shamu” (3). If one searches “Killer Whale” on YouTube, the first videos come up with names like “Shamu attacks and Kills Pelican during show” (I’ve included this video above), “SeaWorld Gone Wrong” (a reference to the 2010 killing of a SeaWorld Trainer by a Killer Whale), and “Killer Whale Almost Kills Kid”. You could consider this as the public’s opinion about Killer Whales. They appear to be considered as dangerous creatures that we keep in amusement parks for our entertainment. In the video above, you can hear the people gasping as "Shamu" eats the pelican, but this is natural behavior. I think this moment was a revelation for many people, as it showed them that the lovable whales doing tricks in the tank are still predators. After the death of SeaWorld trainer Dawn Brancheau in 2010, more people have called for Orcas to be released from captivity, or to at least have their living conditions reformed (12). I believe that it is still difficult for society to get past the idea that Killer Whales are "fun" or "cute", and they have do not remember that Killer Whales are strong predators. Society looks at lovable Shamu and falsely assumes that all Orcas are cute, and safe to be around. It is dangerous to forget that the Killer Whale got the "killer" part of its name from somewhere, and that they are wild, potentially dangerous creatures.
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| (source: seaworld.org) |
The positive impacts of Marine Animal shows are that they educate people about the animal, and allows them to interact with an animal they never would have. According to the SeaWorld website, more than 280 million people have visited their parks since 1964. SeaWorld believes that this gives their visitors “a sense of respect for wildlife, especially Killer Whales (3).” According to Paul Boyle, the Vice President of Education for Ocean Research and Conservation Association (ORCA), the behaviors that Orcas perform in captivity are natural, and the public enjoys seeing the Orcas (12). There has also been an extensive amount of research on the behavior, physiology, and cognition of Killer Whales thanks to Killer Whales being held in captivity (12). I believe that because many people cannot interact with Killer Whales in their natural habitat, humans have forgotten that they are wild creatures. Many people were outraged after the death of Dawn Brancheau, but they seem have forgotten that the Orca who attacked her is still a wild animal. Killer Whales are not a domesticated species, and therefore, in my opinion, should not be treated like one.
The documentary "Blackfish" shows the dark side of working at SeaWorld and attempts to explain why Killer Whales should not be kept in captivity (source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G93beiYiE74)
Whale watching is now a popular past time for many people, with over 13 million people going whale watching in 2009. The industry produced $2 billion in revenue in 2012, and is predicted to add an additional $400 million over the next year. More than 13,000 people are employed in the whale watching industry across the globe, and it is estimated that an additional 5,700 jobs will be created in the future (13). There has been recent criticism, however, that the loud noises produced by the boats are harming the Orcas. It is believed that the loud frequencies produced by the engines of the boats interferes with the whales' sonars, and causes them to become inefficient hunters. In fact, a recent study found that engine noise could block from 88-100% of a whale's sonar signal (14). In my opinion, many people seem conflicted about the impacts of the whale watching industry. On one hand, it allows tourists to interact personally with Orcas in their natural environment, and educates society about Orcas. On the other hand, the industry could be potentially harming the Orcas, outweighing any of the benefits produced by the eco-tourism.
I, personally, was raised as thinking of Killer Whales as animals that only lived at SeaWorld. I loved Killer Whales because I loved SeaWorld, and I was fascinated by all the different creatures there. My family lives close to SeaWorld in Texas, and whenever we go to the Orca show it is always packed. Everyone is always very excited to see the whales.
I, personally, was raised as thinking of Killer Whales as animals that only lived at SeaWorld. I loved Killer Whales because I loved SeaWorld, and I was fascinated by all the different creatures there. My family lives close to SeaWorld in Texas, and whenever we go to the Orca show it is always packed. Everyone is always very excited to see the whales.
Ethology
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Orcas commonly live in groups called pods. Many of their behaviors are group hunting behaviors or social behaviors. Killer Whales have a female-dominant hierarchy. Some dominance behaviors exhibited by Orcas include head butting, jaw snapping, biting, slapping their tails on the water, and raking, which is when a whale scratches another with its teeth (9). Some studies show that whales can exhibit play behaviors, even when held in captivity (9). Orcas like to chase each other, and have been observed rolling around and thrashing together. They have also been seen playing with inanimate objects (such as kelp), as well as playing in the wakes made by passing boats (4). Many whales have been seen playing with prey, as well as antagonizing other marine mammals (9).
Different populations of whales also target different food sources, ergo they must utilize different hunting strategies. There are three different types of Killer Whale:
1.Residents- live in large, common pods, mostly prey on fish (salmon is a favorite), and have a stable social hierarchy (4). Normally the pod is composed of related individuals that control a certain territory (8).
2.Transient- live in small groups (5-6 individuals), and do not have a territory (8). They mostly feed on other marine mammals, have a less rigid social hierarchy than residents, and differ physiologically and behaviorally from residents (they have different shaped dorsal fins, and have different vocalizations.)(4)
3.Offshore- small group of Orcas found off of British Colombia that inhabits open water. They travel in large groups of 30-60 members (8).
Examples of Group Behaviors
Killer Whales exhibiting the "Wave Wash" behavior
• Orcas generally socialize in periods of roughly two hours. Orcas will dive in large groups, and for long periods while they are socializing. This behavior is distinguished from resting because the orcas emit a large variety of sounds differing in length or pitch. Southern groups tend to be more animated during play (they will breach more) than their Northern relatives. Socialization is beneficial in the wild as it helps build bonds between Orcas, as well as pass on information (4).
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| Whale beaching itself to catch a seal source: http://i.dailymail.co.uk/i/pix/2009/06/30/article-1196501-058A91BA000005DC-915_634x400.jpg |
A group of Orcas off of the Crozet Islands (located in the Indian Ocean) will strand themselves on beaches in order to increase their chances of catching Elephant Seals. A similar behavior has been shown in another pod of Orcas in Patagonia. It is theorized that these Orcas learn this unique behavior through observing their mothers perform it. This, in turn, allows the behavior to become unique to one specific pod (11). The behavior is beneficial to the Orcas because it increases access to their prey.
• Some pods of Orcas have learned a cooperative hunting behavior called “wave wash” (there is a video of it above). This behavior is when a group of whales come together and use their tails to create waves to knock a seal off of a piece of ice. This behavior is beneficial because it helps the Killer Whales catch their prey.
• Pods in Norway hunt by forcing fish into a tight ball. This makes it easier for the Orcas to slap their tails and stun the fish, so that they are easier to catch (11).
Examples of Individual Behaviors
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| Whale exhibitng "Sky-hopping" source: http://www.orca-zone.com/album/pic53.html |
A behavior called “Sky-hopping”, is when the whale sticks its head out of the water and forms a vertical line with its body.
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| Whale exhibiting breaching behavior source: http://www.orca-zone.com/album/pic50.html |
Another behavior is called “breaching”, where the whale will jump out of the water and then land on its side or back. Both of these behaviors are common, and are behaviors that have been incorporated into many marine shows at amusement parks. It has been theorized that these behaviors are used to exert dominance during courtship, or simply allow the whale to get a clearer view of their surroundings (8).
Emotions
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| source: http://anneminard.com/wp/2009/02/03/day-11-older-killer-whales-make-best-moms/ |
One of the strongest emotions between whales is love. Love is considered to be a secondary emotion, and is strong between members of a pod. The strongest bond is said to be between a mother and child. Mothers actively direct their calf’s movements while they are young. Depending on the pod, some calves leave their mothers once they mature; but, in the eastern North Pacific, calves stay with their mother through adulthood (9). It is beneficial for a mother to invest care into her calf because it will increase the calf's chance of survival.
Killer Whales have also been shown to grieve, and normally will try to help injured loved ones. One scene described in the book Killer Whales (citation number 4 below) describes the story of a boat that struck a calf. A bull, cow, and another calf were seen helping the injured calf to the surface and holding it up, allowing it to breathe (4). This behavior is beneficial to the Killer Whales as it could increase the indirect fitness of the other members of the pod (as they are all relatives). In fact, whales and dolphins possess spindle neurons, which are similar to those found in humans. In humans, these neurons are linked to feelings of empathy, grief, and intuition. This information could show that Orcas possess the same capabilities as humans (10). The fact that Killer Whales can grieve has also been a main argument against keeping them in captivity. Many captive Orcas were originally taken from their home pods, and brought to the zoos/aquariums where they now reside. It is believed by some that this is a very stressful event for the whale because they are highly social, and form tight bonds within their pods (4). It is hypothesized that the whale who attacked Dawn Brancheau (and other SeaWorld employees) was so traumatized by being separated from his pod, that he became mentally unstable, and unusually aggressive (12).
Speciesism
In my opinion, Killer Whales are considered to have less value than humans. There have been countless studies that keeping Killer Whales in captivity lowers life expectancy, is poor for their health, and is an unsuitable environment for them (12). We, as human beings, only think of what the Killer Whales give us. Marine parks can provide entertainment for our families, teach our children how to be compassionate about nature, and allow us to see animals that we might never see otherwise. We treat Killer Whales similar to the way we treat all zoo animals. I think that marine mammals in general are treated better than some zoo animals because they are considered to be "cute". "Cute" animals tend to hold more value in society because society has a higher desire to protect them. For me, it can be hard to remember that there are wild animals in those tanks, and not just a thing to amuse me. I think this could cause many people to forget that Killer Whales are living things. It is much easier to disregard the living conditions of a nonhuman animal when one does not consider it to be a wild animal. I think this causes many people to not formulate their own opinions on Killer Whales kept in captivity, as well as allows different companies to not always consider the living conditions of their animals.
RESOURCES:
1. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. (n.d.). Killer Whales. Retrieved from http://www.afsc.noaa.gov/nmml/education/cetaceans/killer.php
2. WhaleFacts.org . (2013). Where do Killer Whales live? Retrieved from http://www.whalefacts.org/where-do-killer-whales-live/
3. SeaWorld. (n.d.). Killer Whales: Conservation and Research. Retrieved from http://www.seaworld.org/animal-info/info-books/killer-whale/conservation.htm
4. Balcomb, K.C., Ellis, G.M, and Ford, J.K.B. (1994). Killer Whales. Seattle, Wa: University of Washington Press.
7. Facey, S. (2010). Whales Can Be Used in Perfume, Soap, and Candles. Retrieved from http://www.examiner.com/article/whales-can-be-used-perfume-soap-and-candles
8. The Orca Zone. (2005). Social Behavior. Retrieved from http://www.orca-zone.com/aboutorcas/behavior.html
9. SeaWorld. (n.d.). Killer Whales: Behavior. Retrieved from http://www.seaworld.org/animal-info/info-books/killer-whale/behavior.htm
10. Nelson, B. (2011, Sept. 04). Do Dolphins Mourn their Dead? Retrieved from http://www.mnn.com/earth-matters/animals/stories/do-dolphins-mourn-their-dead
11. Marshall, M. (2012, Aug. 16). Zoologger: Cultured Killer Whales Learn By Coping. Retrieved from http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn22186-zoologger-cultured-killer-whales-learn-by-copying.html#.UjkjIRYm9lJ
12. Gorman, J. (2013, July 29). Smart, Social, and Erratic in Captivity. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/30/science/smart-social-and-captive.html?pagewanted=all
13. Discovery News. (2011, Feb. 11). Whale-Watching a Booming Business. Retrieved from http://news.discovery.com/animals/whale-watching-industry.htm
14. Chasan, D.J. (2012, June 12). Whale-watching boats: no "room" for the orcas. Retrieved from http://crosscut.com/2012/06/12/animals-wildlife/108875/orcas-whale-watching-san-juan-islands/
13. Discovery News. (2011, Feb. 11). Whale-Watching a Booming Business. Retrieved from http://news.discovery.com/animals/whale-watching-industry.htm
14. Chasan, D.J. (2012, June 12). Whale-watching boats: no "room" for the orcas. Retrieved from http://crosscut.com/2012/06/12/animals-wildlife/108875/orcas-whale-watching-san-juan-islands/
SD PART 2
Orcas in Art throughout the ages
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Orca Motif on a basket made by the Tlingit (indigenous people of the Pacific Northwest) circa 1910
(Photographer: Joe Mabel, source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tlingit_basket_with_orca_motif_c._1900_detail_01.jpg)
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Killer Whale made out of a Cucumber
A more lighthearted (and personal favorite) example of Killer Whales in art is this Orca carved out of a cucumber. The only description the artist, Brock Davis, had of this piece was “I was supposed to cut this up for a salad (3).” Brock Davis is an illustrator, designer, photographer, creative director and artist from Minneapolis, Minnesota. If you glance around his website, you can see the various types of ads he has created, his editorials, and some of his current projects which feature various food items, every day items, and animals (3). I personally am not sure what Davis was trying to convey with his work, but I find it to be an interesting, and fun perspective of Killer Whales in Art. I think this piece shows the simple beauty of Orcas, and does not reflect them as vicious animals, or show them in mythology.
Orcas in Literature and Folklore
The Killer Whale is a prominent feature in many folklores from the Haida people (indigenous people from British Columbia (4)). The Haida believed that Killer Whales were manifestations of deceased ancestors, and that if one saw a Killer Whale near shore, then it was an ancestor trying to communicate with his/her relatives. There are even stories of Killer Whales knocking over canoes so that the deceased relatives (the Orcas) can be closer to their living relatives (5). The Haida believed that Killer Whales had been created when a man named Natcitlaneh was abandoned on an island by his brother-in-law. He was rescued from the island by some Sea Lions, and out of gratitude, Natcitlaneh healed their chief. To thank him, Natcitlaneh was given eight wooden Killer Whale figurines. When the figurines were placed into the sea, they turned into real life Killer Whales, and avenged Natcitlaneh by killing his brother-in-law (5).
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Orca statue made by the Haida
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This story explains the Haida’s story of the creation of Killer Whales. It presents the Killer Whales as capable of having feelings, and able to enact revenge. I think Orcas were chosen over other species because they were a common sight in the daily lives of the Haida. They are also large, powerful creatures that demand respect, but are also majestic, and intelligent. In my opinion, Orcas make a great symbol for deceased loved ones because of these characteristics that are shared by humans. The Orcas contribute to the story by representing creatures that can right wrongs, and work as symbols for the dead.
Orcas in Film
(source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y6bSTWtAo0U)
In my opinion, the most notable children’s movie about Orcas is Free Willy. Free Willy is about a young Killer Whale who is captured by whalers, and put on display in a Marine park. The Killer Whale, named Willy, is disruptive in captivity, but a young boy named Jesse befriends him. Eventually, Jesse and Willy are able to form a bond, and Jesse begins to teach Willy tricks. On the day of his first show, Willy damages his tank because children are antagonizing him. Later, two men come in and further tamper with Willy’s tank so that the water is slowly leaking out. Jesse realizes that Willy is in danger, so he decides that Willy needs to be released back into the wild where he can return to his family. As Jesse tries to release Willy a henchman chases him. Willy is finally released into the wild, but he must jump over a tall seawall to escape into the wild. Jesse signals Willy to jump, and Willy makes his iconic jump over the seawall and into freedom. I think Orcas were chosen for this movie as they are “cute”, and they fascinate children. I think it is also easy for people to related to Orcas, as humans and Orcas both care deeply for their families.
Trailer for Orca or Orca: The Killer Whale
The only clear example I found of a movie about Orcas for adults was the 1977’s horror movie Orca. The film was criticized for its plot’s similarity to Jaws. The main character is named Nolan, and he starts of the film looking to capture a Great White Shark to put into an aquarium. The Killer Whale comes in and kills the shark that Nolan is trying to capture. Nolan then tries to catch the Killer Whale, but accidentally harpoons the Orca’s mate, and kills the Orca’s child. The Orca then begins to take revenge on Nolan and the surrounding village by sinking boats, destroying fuel lines, and killing people. The film ends with the Orca killing most of the characters, and finally killing Nolan. Once this is done, the Orca swims away and the terror is over (6). I think Orcas were chosen for this movie because they already have the word “killer” in their name. They are large predators that can be fearsome. They are also very intelligent animals that could be considered capable of revenge. I think they were also chose because they are not the stereotypical shark, large cat, etc.
There is a clear difference in the intended messages of Free Willy and Orca. Free Willy is about the bond between Jesse and Willy. It also shows the strong bond between Willy and his family, and emphasizes that Orcas live with their families. Orcas in this movie are portrayed in a sympathetic light, and are not necessarily shown behaving as they would in the wild. In Orca, Orcas are portrayed solely as killers that are capable of revenge. Both movies emphasize that Orcas are social creatures that appear to care about their families, and that Orcas are intelligent.
Orcas in Religion and Mythology
As I mentioned before, many of the indigenous people of the northern pacific used Orcas in their mythology. The Tlingit had many stories that evolved around Orcas. The best story I could find was the story of the creation of Orcas. A Tlingit man decided to make Killer Whales. He tried to carve the whales out of red cedar, hemlock, and a bunch of different kinds of wood. He put all of his figurines into the ocean and tried to make them swim away. All of the figurines merely floated to the surface. Eventually, he tried yellow cedar. When these figurine were placed into the water they grew, and swam away. The man told the Killer Whales that they could eat seal, halibut, and other sea creatures, but they could never harm a human. Thus, the Killer Whale was created (10).
There are many other Tlingit stories that feature the Orcas interacting with man. One story recalls that Killer Whales could come out of the sea, and camp on the beach. Once man spotted them they would jump back into the sea. Another, more gruesome story, recalls the story of a man whose wife had been stolen by the Orcas. In order to find his wife, the man travelled to see the Shark Chief. The Shark Chief told the man that his wife had married one of the Whale Chiefs, and that in order to get her back, he would need to steal her from the Whale Chief. The man agreed, and was told that there was a slave who always cut wood for the Whale Chief. If the man could break the slave’s axe, then he would be allowed access to the camp under the guise of trying to help fix the axe. The man could then create a diversion and steal his wife back. Long story short, the Shark people and the Whale people go to war, and the whole bay is filled with Sharks and Whales. What happened to the man and his wife is unknown (10).
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Killer Whale statue made by Laurence Skow c. 2007
(source: http://www.justart.ca/orca-whale-panel-laurence-scow-1123-pictures.htm)
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I think all of these stories help explain the presence of Killer Whales in the waters around where the Tlingit lived. All these stories show the Killer Whale as a fearsome predator, but one that does not harm humans as well. I think this is interesting because I think today’s society has a difficult time remembering that Orcas are predators just like Lions or Tigers. While they are “cute” and enjoyable to watch, they should not be messed with. Their size and strength should be respected, and I think the Tlingit were more cognizant of that. I think the Tlingit were very respectful of Killer Whales, and accepted them as a part of their everyday lives. Many of their stories featured the Killer Whales acting out in revenge on humans who had some how wronged them (10). It portrays Killer Whales as intelligent, and very similar to humans.
Controversial Topic- Orcas in Captivity
As I mentioned in my previous post, Orcas in captivity is a hot button issue right now. Orcas in captivity are normally used in marine shows at aquariums/marine parks, or for breeding purposes. Generally, they are kept in captivity solely for the profit of the aquarium or marine park.
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Orca bleeding out after ramming another Orca
(source: http://www.takepart.com/photos/7-reasons-orcas-and-captivity-dont-mix/1-accelerated-mortality)
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With recent release of the documentary Blackfish, more people appear to be focusing on the ethics of keeping Orcas in captivity. I recently watched Blackfish, and it opened my eyes to the alternative perception of SeaWorld. I think more people would be hesitant to go to SeaWorld if they heard how the Orcas are captured in order to come to SeaWorld. Many captive Orcas were originally taken from their home pods, and brought to the zoos/aquariums where they now reside. In Blackfish, the whalers used planes, speedboats, and even bombs in order to herd the whales into an inlet where they could capture them (7). It is believed by some that this is a very stressful event for the whale because they are highly social, and form tight bonds within their pods (2).
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A whale showing marks from “raking” at Loro Parque theme park
(Source: http://www.takepart.com/article/2013/03/14/activists-us-repatriate-seaworld-orcas-dysfunctional-spanish-tanks)
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Blackfish showed quite a few Orcas who bore marks from raking (an aggressive behavior where one Orca drags its teeth across the skin of another Orca), and many of the whales fight. Orcas from different pods tend to have different languages, and cultures. When the Orcas are then put into one large tank, the whales fight because they may not be able to communicate, do not understand the culture of the other Orcas, and they are stressed from being separated from their families. One animal was intent on hurting another, as told my a former SeaWorld employee, that she rammed another whale with her head, broke her jaw which cut an artery, and she then bled to death. Besides aggressive behavior, many Orcas show extreme grief when they are separated from their calves. One of the trainers featured in Blackfish recounted a story where a mother whale was separated from her two year old daughter. The daughter had been labeled as “unruly” by SeaWorld executives, and had been removed from its mother to be shipped to another SeaWorld location. The mother began to produce cries not seen in nature (a paraphrasing of the trainer’s words) in order to try to locate her daughter. Clearly, captivity does not provide for an Orca’s social needs or emotional needs, and put Orcas in unnecessary danger. In fact, captivity can shorten an Orca’s lifespan. In the wild, Orcas may live to be around 100 years old for females, or 60-70 years old for males. In captivity, Orcas only live to be around 30-35 years old (7).
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Typical Orca holding tank at SeaWorld
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Tanks are also not appropriate enclosures for Orcas. In the wild, Orcas have thousands of miles of open water to swim in. In captivity, tanks are much smaller for practical reasons. Parks obviously cannot create gigantic tanks, but the tanks they have are not large enough for the number of whales in them. This lack of space makes it difficult for animals to escape from aggressive behaviors, as well as burn of energy and frustration. The concrete tanks also cause the whale’s sonar calls to bounce off of the concrete, and reverberate back to the whales. This is speculated to drive the whales crazy (8). Many tanks also do not provide any sort of stimulation for the Orca. One trainer guessed that the only time the Orcas were stimulated was when he was working with them (7). In highly intelligent creatures like Orcas, this is bound to cause boredom and frustration which could translate into aggression. This compounded with the anxiety and frustration harbored in the whales due to stress from captivity cannot be good for the animal. There have been over 70 reports of aggression directed towards trainers by Orcas since the 1970s. Many speculate that these attacks are so high in frequency due to the high levels of frustration and stress found in Orcas in captivity. This hypothesis is supported by the fact that there have been no attacks by Orcas in the wild on humans (7).
SeaWorld is no longer allowed to bring animals from the wild into captivity. They are now limited only to buying animals that are already in captivity, or gain animals through their breeding programs. This causes a limited number of whales to be reproducing within a small community of only about 26 whales. Tilikum (the whale who killed SeaWorld trainer Dawn Brancheau in 2010) has fathered a good majority of the whales born in a SeaWorld location. There have been only 28 live births at SeaWorld; 9 of those Orcas are deceased, and 10 are still with their mothers (9). This in inhumane as it could cause calves to be deformed, or could cause them to have mental or emotional issues.
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| (source: http://ihearthellokitty.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/12/hkseaworld9.jpg) |
Initially, I thought that there was no harm in keeping Killer Whales in captivity. I believed, like many others, that Killer Whales lived longer, healthier lives in captivity. I also believed that these whales were with their families, and that they were happy. While I cannot guess the emotional states of Orcas, I would guess that they are not the happy animals portrayed in my many Shamu stuffed animals. It makes me feel upset that I went to SeaWorld and gave money towards the continued confinement of these whales. It also upsets me that SeaWorld does not seem concerned about the well being of their Orcas, nor of their trainers. In the documentary Blackfish, SeaWorld continues to fight the ban keeping their trainers out of the water with their Orcas put in place by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (7). It makes we wonder how SeaWorld, a company supposedly founded with the goals of educating the public, and rehabilitating sea animals, can continue to disregard the safety of their employees. It also makes me wonder how their other animals are kept if the Orcas are treated so poorly. I understand that there are cost restraints on how well the Orcas tank can be constructed, but I think that if could be improved. I also think that if the Orcas state of living is so low that they should be released back into the wild, or be kept in larger open ocean pens. Learning more about this topic has definitely made me less willing to go to SeaWorld. While we do not definitively know whether the Orcas involved in these attacks are acting out maliciously, I think we should consider these attacks as warnings.
Resources:
1. Mabel, J. (2010, Dec. 08). Tlingit basket with orca motif c. 1900. Retrieved from http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tlingit_basket_with_orca_motif_c._1900_02.jpg.
2. Balcomb, K.C., Ellis, G.M, and Ford, J.K.B. (1994). Killer Whales. Seattle, Wa: University of Washington Press.
3. Davis, Brock. (n.d.) Cucumber Killer Whale. Retrieved from http://www.itistheworldthatmadeyousmall.com/46341/656228/projects/cucumber-killer-whale.
4. Haida. (2013). In Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Retrieved from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/251732/Haida
5. Shearar, Cheryl. (2000). Understanding Northwest Coast Art. Seattle, Wa: University of Washington Press.
6. Internet Movie Database. (n.d.) Orca (1977). Retrieved from http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0076504/
7. Oteyza, M. (producer), & Cowperthwaite, G. (Director). (2013). Blackfish [Motion Picture]. United States: Dogwoof films.
8. PETA. (2010). Aquariums and Marine Parks. Retrieved from http://www.peta.org/issues/animals-in-entertainment/aquariums-and-marine-parks.aspx.
9. Tenofsky, R. (2010, July 8). SeaWorld’s Inbreeding Program. Retrieved from http://www.nonhumanrightsproject.org/2013/07/08/seaworlds-inbreeding-program/.
10. Swanton, J. (1904). Origin of The Killer Whale. Retrieved from http://www.sacred-texts.com/nam/nw/tmt/tmt008.htm.
10. Swanton, J. (1904). Origin of The Killer Whale. Retrieved from http://www.sacred-texts.com/nam/nw/tmt/tmt008.htm.
FINAL PART OF PROJECT
Letter Supporting a Company that keeps Orcas in Captivity
1 Dear SeaWorld,
 |
| source: sea world.org |
I would like to
thank you for all of your research and conservation efforts for Killer
Whales. The Navy Marine Mammal Program
(MMP) found that there are many benefits of keeping Orcas in captivity, and
that many companies such as yours are producing useful research. They found that keeping marine mammals in captivity
has allowed humans to further understand the physiology, ecology, and natural
behaviors of marine mammals.
Specifically, humans have been able to learn more about echolocation, diving
physiology, and animal husbandry techniques.
Studying Orcas in captivity (like SeaWorld does) has also benefited the
Orcas by allowing us to develop better veterinary care, as well as further the study
of their hearing, sound production, diving, breeding, physiology, and ageing.
It has as also helped researchers determine how sound affects animals in the
wild (1).
 |
| source: www.seaworld.org |
As we have
discussed in class, marine parks allow for people to be educated about marine
animals, and parks are concerned with conservation and animal rehabilitation. Your
company has allowed millions of people to learn about Killer Whales, and given
them the opportunity to learn more about their natural habitats. This will (hopefully) allow people to
sympathize more with the Orcas, and be concerned about their future in the wild.
A
study done in 2010 found that guests who had interacted with marine animals not
only learned about the animals and their environment, but also had changed
opinions about conservation. Participants felt that they were personally responsible to
protect the environment after interacting with the marine animals (9). Your
conservation program has also been as successful as your education
programs. The fact that you were able to
raise $2.5 million in 2012 for conservation is amazing, and shows your
opponents that you are dedicated to your mission (2). I think it is amazing that you have used all
of the findings of your research to not only care for your animals and educate
your guests, but also to help rehabilitate over 20,000 animals (3). I think that your company has been able to
not only positively impact the lives of your guests, but can also benefit
future generations of Orcas in the wild.
 |
| Orca Tank at one of your parks source: www.peta.org |
I think that your
organization’s intentions are good, but you could improve on a few things. According to the
recent documentary Blackfish, your
parks do not have tanks that simulate the Orcas’ real habitats. You have also been shown on film stating
incorrect facts about how many whales in the wild have collapsed dorsal fins,
and about how long their average lifespan is in the wild (4).
While stating incorrect information could be an honest mistake, I
would recommend updating your information so that your guests are getting the best
education possible. Being open with
information could help improve your public image as it shows that you have nothing to hide. I would also do more research into how to
create tanks that are more similar to the natural environment of Orcas
(i.e. larger, deeper, etc.). I know
your organization values the wellbeing of your Orcas, but creating larger tanks could only improve their lives. I would also consider dropping the lawsuit against OSHA to keep your trainers in the water with Orcas. It has been shown that
people are not safe interacting in the water with your Orcas. Your park is not the only park that has had its share of tragedies, but that does not make them okay. Your staff should not
be harmed at work, no matter if a trainer makes mistakes. I know your trainers
feel that they have deep bonds with their Orcas, but please consider
permanently removing these tricks from your marine shows. I believe that the current situations created
by Blackfish, and your lawsuit does not
reflect your organization is a positive light, nor does it reflect your values.
This negative PR is overshadowing all of the amazing things you do at
your parks everyday. I know your
organization tries to follow it’s values and goals, and that you care about
your animals and staff. I think that
if you show the public that you are making an honest effort to improve, then
the public will love to go to SeaWorld again.
Thank you for all of your work,
Anne
Letter to organization against keeping Orcas in captivity
2)
Dear People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals
(PETA),
 |
| source: www.peta.org |
Your
organization provides many valid reasons for why Orcas should not be kept in
captivity. I agree with you that Orcas
should are poorly treated in some
marine parks. As you mentioned on your
website, many of the tanks Orcas are kept in are not suitable for their
needs. They provide the Orcas with no
mental stimulation, and cannot account for the 100+ miles they would swim daily in the
wild (5).
 |
| The tank at the Miami SeaAquarium for their Orca, Lolita. source: http://www.orcanetwork.org/captivity/lolitatoday.html |
I have also learned in class that
the largest tank made for Orcas in captivity is only 0.0001% the size of the
smallest home range found in wild Orcas.
I think this is a problem that could be easily improved on. There are practical constraints on the size
of tank an organization can build, but organizations can at least try to make
their tanks deeper, as well as provide forms of stimulation for the
whales. It is believed by some that
finding a way to allow whales exercise more will help decrease boredom and stress
in captive Orcas.
I was also surprised to learn from your website that tanks are made out of incorrect materials that can potentially harm the Orcas. Most tanks are constructed out of concrete that disrupts the Orca’s use of echolocation. It causes their echolocation waves to be released, bounce off the concrete, and then bounce back at the Orca. This can begin to be harmful for the Orca, as it upsets them (5). I also heard of your recent lawsuit against SeaWorld, claiming that their facilities are unsafe after a child was bitten at a feed-a-dolphin session. As a result of the lawsuit, the USDA found that the areas surrounding some tanks were unsafe for humans, as they had uneven/crumbling concrete, and exposed rusty beams (8). This creates unsafe conditions for both Orcas and humans. I think that your efforts to promote the wellbeing of Orcas by pressuring SeaWorld to fix their tanks have been great, and can only result in positive changes.
I was also surprised to learn from your website that tanks are made out of incorrect materials that can potentially harm the Orcas. Most tanks are constructed out of concrete that disrupts the Orca’s use of echolocation. It causes their echolocation waves to be released, bounce off the concrete, and then bounce back at the Orca. This can begin to be harmful for the Orca, as it upsets them (5). I also heard of your recent lawsuit against SeaWorld, claiming that their facilities are unsafe after a child was bitten at a feed-a-dolphin session. As a result of the lawsuit, the USDA found that the areas surrounding some tanks were unsafe for humans, as they had uneven/crumbling concrete, and exposed rusty beams (8). This creates unsafe conditions for both Orcas and humans. I think that your efforts to promote the wellbeing of Orcas by pressuring SeaWorld to fix their tanks have been great, and can only result in positive changes.
Child is bitten by dolphin at SeaWorld feed a
dolphin exhibit. This incident spurred
one of PETA’s many lawsuits against SeaWorld.
Many
organizations that keep Orcas in captivity also claim that their Orcas live
healthier, longer lives in captivity. Your website discusses this point, and shows
that Orcas in captivity have shorter lifespans than their wild counterparts.
As you know, the lifespan of wild Orcas can be similar to a human's, but is normally
between 30 and 50 years old. The
median age for Orcas in captivity is only 9 years (7). The mortality rate of Orcas in captivity is
2.5 times higher than wild Orcas. For
me, this shows that Orcas do not benefit from being kept in the wild. Many organizations (such as SeaWorld) also
claim that Orcas kept in captivity live longer because they have access to
better veterinary care (4).
I have also learned in class that captivity affects the reproduction capabilities of Orcas, and may result in problems with conception and stillbirths. This could show that the Orcas’ health is not as good as it is claimed to be, as stress/poor treatment can make it difficult for many organisms to successfully reproduce. The USDA also found that SeaWorld has been using expired medication, and does not use the appropriate methods to treat, or diagnose their animals (8). This shows that the Orcas are not living healthier or longer lives in captivity. I believe that your lawsuit has helped show that SeaWorld could improve on the treatment of their Orcas, and I believe that your actions will positively benefit the Orcas, as well as SeaWorld’s guests and employees.
 |
| Infographic explaining common dental problems of Orcas in captivity. |
I have also learned in class that captivity affects the reproduction capabilities of Orcas, and may result in problems with conception and stillbirths. This could show that the Orcas’ health is not as good as it is claimed to be, as stress/poor treatment can make it difficult for many organisms to successfully reproduce. The USDA also found that SeaWorld has been using expired medication, and does not use the appropriate methods to treat, or diagnose their animals (8). This shows that the Orcas are not living healthier or longer lives in captivity. I believe that your lawsuit has helped show that SeaWorld could improve on the treatment of their Orcas, and I believe that your actions will positively benefit the Orcas, as well as SeaWorld’s guests and employees.
Your website also brings up that many whales currently in captivity were torn from their families, and that the experience was very traumatic for them. Orcas live with their families their entire lives in the wild, so forcefully removing them from their pods causes high amounts of stress (5). Blackfish explained that taking an Orca from its home pod and then putting it in captivity with a bunch of strange whales is detrimental to all of the Orcas’ health. Since Orcas a highly social creatures, this practice has been shown to cause increased rates of aggression between Orcas, and is linked to the Orca attacks on humans (6). It is important for the wellbeing of both humans and Orcas that we should try to keep from mixing the different cultures of Orcas in captivity, as well as keep families their biological families in captivity together. I believe that your efforts to educate people about this specific problems of keeping Orcas in captivity will help pressure SeaWorld and other parks to consider their Orca families more.
While your organization provides a different perspective of Orcas in captivity, I
think that your opinions and facts can be one sided. The Navy Marine Mammal Program has found many
benefits of keeping Orcas in captivity.
The have found that not only did it allow for researchers to learn more
things about the physiology and natural behaviors of Orcas, but it also allowed
humans to learn more about diving and animal husbandry. While I think marine parks need to improve
some issues, I do not think that keeping Orcas in captivity is as horrible as your organization thinks. Many marine
parks value the welfare of their animals, and want to educate their guests. SeaWorld
and other marine parks have been shown to educate their visitors, and instill
in them an interest in marine animals. A
study in 2010 found that, after watching a dolphin show, participants showed
more interest in conservation, had learned new information about conservation,
and 3 months later were engaging in more conservation related efforts than ever
before (9). This response can only lead
to positive benefits for both Orcas and humans alike in the future.
Thank you for all your work, and
for reading this letter,
Anne
Compromise
1.
Keep Orca families together or keep “cultures”
together to create realistic pods
 |
| source: http://cetaceaninspiration.wordpress.com/ |
Since Orcas are highly social creatures,
minimizing their social stress should always be a goal when they are kept in
captivity. Most of the stress created in
captivity appears to be due to mixing whales from different
cultures/families. There have been
numerous instances where whales acted out aggressively towards other whales in
captivity. Tilikum (a whale who has
killed numerous people) was bullied by other Orcas at every location he has
lived at. This aggression is cited to be
a possible explanation for why he has attacked so many people (4). Marine parks/aquariums could start keeping
familial groups or cultures of whales together in captivity. Orcas are commonly moved away from their families for logistical reasons. For example, a baby Orca was moved from one SeaWorld location to another because she began to interrupt Shamu shows (4). Keeping families and cultures together will hopefully decrease the amount of
social stress that Orcas are under in captivity. This
will also reduce aggressive behaviors between Orcas, as well as ideally keeping
them from attacking their human trainers. Keeping Orcas together in these artificial
pods will allow for captive Orcas to live in an environment more similar to
their natural environment in the wild. By reducing social stress in captive
Orcas due to combing different cultures and families, one can hope to see
healthier animals that will not be aggressive towards others, or their
trainers. This makes both sides of the
captivity argument happy because it still allows for Orcas to be kept in
captivity, but provides them with better social and physical health. It also protects their trainers from attacks,
which both sides want to prevent.
2. Use
coastal sea pens instead of concrete tank
 |
| A proposed Sea Pen for Orcas in Oregon source: http://cetaceaninspiration.wordpress.com/2012/04/24/tearing-apart-families-controlling-the-orcas-social-structure-in-captivity/ |
Many tanks used to contain Orcas are not nearly
large enough for one, let alone an entire pod.
Coastal Sea Pens are large open pens that allow Orcas to live in
environments more similar to their natural environments, yet remain in captivity. Research has suggested that
many Orcas who are born in captivity/were rehabilitated are unable to return to
the wild, so it is impractical to demand that all captive Orcas be returned to
their homes (10). These tanks would
provide more space for Orcas, thus allowing them to escape from aggressive
behaviors, and get more exercise. These
tanks would also allow for the whales to use echolocation normally, and would
provide more mental stimulation than their tanks in marine parks/aquariums. Marine parks/aquariums could start to
transition some of their animals to these enclosures that are too aggressive, being bullied by other Orcas,
or need to be retired. These
tanks are used to transition whales away from being used in marine shows, and
into an environment similar to being in the wild. I think these tanks will still allow the public to
see the whales, and thus allow them to learn more about conservation and
natural behaviors of Orcas. These tanks
would allow for organizations to keep their Orcas on display in a sense, but would be better for the overall health for the Orcas. It would create an overall better living
environment for the Orcas (which anti-captivity groups want), and reduce the
danger and stress created by concrete tanks (which both sides want). Eventually (depending on if the park/aquarium had the resources to acquire enough land) these pens could be used for all of the Orcas in captivity.
3. Don’t breed, rehabilitate
 |
| Example of rehabilitation source: Seaworld.org |
PETA proposed this idea on their website, and I
think it would be an easy compromise (5).
Many of the whales in captivity are interrelated because organizations
are no longer able to capture Orcas from the wild. Inbreeding is detrimental in the captive
population because it is propagating potentially harmful genes. For example, Tilikum has sired, or is related to a good
portion of the other whales in captivity (4).
If Tilikum’s aggressiveness towards humans is thought to be genetic, than a good
portion of the captive population could also be more aggressive towards
humans. This would be very dangerous for
the trainers who work with the Orcas. Many
organizations that display marine mammals, though, value conservation and rehabilitation
of injured animals. These organizations
could acquire new Orcas by taking in and rehabilitating injured Orcas. This would decrease the rampant amount of
inbreeding found within captive Orcas (6), and would allow for organizations to
be true to their values. It could also provide organizations with positive PR if they are then able to release these animals back
into the wild. It would satisfy groups
against the captivity of Orcas as the marine park/aquarium would not be
breeding animals, and only acquiring new animals that could be rehabilitated to be
returned to the wild. Thus, these
animals would not be kept in captivity for there whole lives unless they could
not be returned to the wild. This would
not need to be an immediate change, nor would the marine parks/aquariums need
to get rid of their current Orcas. I
think that this change will move the focus or marine parks/aquariums away from
wanting to have cute babies on display (and thus feeling the pressure to
pressure to have the Orcas reproduce), and would move them towards showing how Orcas can
be nursed back to health, and returned to the wild.
Moral Vision Statement
 |
| source: http://www.clippervacations.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/whale_orca.jpg |
My personal philosophy is that all nonhuman
animals should be treated as humanely as possible. I think all animals (humans included) should
be protected from unnecessary harm. I think that all animals have the right to equal consideration, and that humans should
always be aware and concerned about of the well being of nonhuman animals. I believe that Humans should try to always
advocate for the wellbeing of nonhuman animals, and work to find practical
solutions to any issues that are detrimental to them. For the future, it is important to not make
decisions regarding nonhuman animals without considering how the action will
impact the environment, as well as how it will impact humans and other nonhuman
animals. It is important that every
human acts as sustainably as possible and practical for them. For example, it is not
practical to expect lower income families to buy all organic/vegan products as
they are very expensive, but the family could abstain from eating meat a few
times a week. I think that using
sustainable practices now will benefit future generations of all species. It will also create practical practices for
the everyday lives of humans, and these lifestyle changes could be used for
many years. I believe that nonhuman
animals and humans are able to form strong bonds, and that nonhuman animals
should not be exploited by these bonds.
I believe that humans have to remember that having a bond with a
nonhuman animal does not guarantee how an organism will react or behave. Remembering this fact is important to
protecting humans from being hurt by the nonhuman animals they work with, and
keep society from labeling an animal as dangerous.
Final Reflection
 |
|
When I was younger I would have sold all my possessions to
be this woman.
Now you couldn’t pay me to do this.
Source: http://i.dailymail.co.uk/i/pix/2010/02/25/article-0-08755B83000005DC-144_634x683.jpg
|
This project also made me reconsider one of my possible career paths, as I do not know if I would want to work in an aquarium or marine park any longer. When I was younger, I wanted to become a Killer Whale trainer like my idols at SeaWorld. Watching the movie Blackfish for this project has made me reevaluate my thoughts on being thrown in the air by Shamu. After seeing Blackfish, I do not know if I could morally work with an organization that does not seem to value its trainers or its nonhuman animals. I grew up thinking that Orca trainers needed years of training to work up to working with Orcas or other marine animals. Blackfish featured trainers who had never been educated about Orcas, nor did they necessarily have tons of education. I think this was incredibly irresponsible of SeaWorld and Loro Parque. I feel that these trainers were not given enough information to fully understand the risks of their jobs, nor understand the true potential of the Orcas they are working with. I also cannot understand how SeaWorld could cover up the deaths/injuries of so many of their trainers. What upset me most was that all of these incidents were labeled as trainer error. I do not believe that the Orcas (or other nonhuman animals involved in attacks) were fully to blame, but they played a crucial role in the attack. These attacks should be taken seriously, and nonhuman animals should be removed or treated with caution after these attacks. Learning all of this information made me seriously doubt if I could ever work at a marine park. I was also appalled to learn that they were using expired medication to treat their animals. As we have discussed in class, marine parks and aquariums pride themselves on giving their animals good veterinary care. The actions of SeaWorld have shown me that they may not value their animals and staff as much as they value their profits. I realized from doing this project that I could use my future degree to study new ways to help animals in captivity so that their lives are the best they can be. It also made me consider if captivity is good for Orcas, or any species. I now doubt that the benefits of aquariums/zoos/etc. outweigh the cons for the nonhuman animals. We have discussed in class at length that nonhuman animals kept in captivity tend to show stress related behaviors (i.e. pacing, kennel crazy, etc.), and their enclosures do not meet their needs. Orcas can not be kept in tanks that do not accommodate their basic needs. Their tanks can not provide the space for the amount of exercise they need, nor do they provide the stimulating environment that the intelligent Orcas need. I was amazed at this fact because I thought these were the most basic requirements of enclosures for animals in captivity according to the Animal Welfare Act. I realize that research has allowed zoos/aquariums to improve their treatment and housing of nonhuman animals over the years, and I have hope that the future will see developments in creating appropriate tanks for Orcas. I hope that this will allow Orcas in the future to not be stressed, and will reduce the attacks on trainers. It also saddens me that nonhuman animals in captivity tend to not live as long as their wild counterparts. This shows, in my opinion, that nonhuman animals are not healthier in captivity, nor do they live better lives.
 |
| source: http://christinzakh.deviantart.com/art/Orcas-362494853 |
This project and Blackfish have made me doubt the bond formed between Orcas (and all nonhuman animals) and humans. In class we have discussed how it is possible for nonhuman animals to form strong bonds with humans. We can never actually know how Orcas are feeling, only that they are capable of having them. I now realize how much society anthropomorphizes Orcas and other nonhuman animals, and constantly tries to attach feelings or motives to nonhuman animals. It is not fair for humans to label nonhuman animals with feelings/motives, since we currently do not know what they are actually feeling. I believe we do this to try to rationalize the behavior of Orcas using human feelings, as this is the only way it makes sense to our brains. I have decided from this project that humans rely on the human-animal bond too much. We place too much trust in believing that we can predict a nonhuman animal’s behavior because we have a bond with his/her. Throughout this class and this project we have seen examples of humans who claim that their pets would never hurt them because they have such a strong bond between them. Many of these stories ended in humans being hurt by the nonhuman animal. While having a bond with an animal can help you predict behavior, this class has made me realize you should never take this for granted. This class gave me some hope, though, because it showed how humans get angry when humans exploit the nonhuman animal-human bond as well. For example, a person who abuses their pets is looked towards negatively by society. At least society wants to punish both nonhuman animals and humans who do wrong. Overall, this project made me realize that you should never just accept the opinion of society, and you should look at all the facts before making a decision about a nonhuman animal.
1. Houser, D., Finneran, J., and Ridgway, S. (2010). Research with Navy Marine Mammals Benefits Animal Care, Conservation and
Biology. International Journal of Comparative Psychology, 32, 249-268.
2.
SeaWorld Parks & Entertainment.
(2013). SeaWorld Conservation. Retrieved
from http://seaworldparks.com/en/Sea_Rescue/SeaWorld-Conservation.
3.
SeaWorld Parks
& Entertainment. (2013). Conservation. Retrieved from http://seaworldparks.com/en/seaworld-orlando/TurtleTrek/Conservation.
4.
Oteyza, M.
(producer), & Cowperthwaite, G. (Director).
(2013). Blackfish [Motion Picture].
United States: Dogwoof films.
5.
PETA. (2010).
Aquariums and Marine Parks. Retrieved from http://www.peta.org/issues/animals-in-entertainment/aquariums-and-marine-parks.aspx.
6.
Cronin, A.M. (2013).
Killer Whales Don’t Belong in Captivity-
Here’s why. Retrieved from http://www.onegreenplanet.org/animalsandnature/orcas-killer-whales-captivity/.
7.
SeaWorld of
Hurt. (2012). Ten
Things You Didn’t Know About SeaWorld. Retrieved
from http://www.seaworldofhurt.com/ten-things.aspx.
8.
SeaWorld of
Hurt. (2013). SeaWorld
Cited for Endangering Animals, Tanks in Disrepair. Retrieved from http://www.seaworldofhurt.com/case-against-seaworld.aspx#sw-endangering-animals.
9.
Alliance of
Marine Mammal Parks & Aquariums. (2013).
FAQ: Are People Learning About
Marine Mammals From Zoos And Aquariums? Retrieved
from http://www.ammpa.org/faqs.html#3.
10.
Alliance of Marine Mammal Parks &
Aquariums. (2013). Is it
safe to release whales and dolphins to the wild that now live in Zoological
parks and Aquariums? Retrieved from http://www.ammpa.org/faqs.html#3.
