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Introduction:
The species that I have chosen is the Killer Whale, or Orca (Orcinus orca)(1). Orcas are the largest member of the
Delphinidae family, which is composed of all of the dolphins (4). Killer Whales are an exotic
species as they are found in all of the World’s oceans, including around the United States. If you look at the map below, all of the dark blue areas are regions where Orcas are found. Killer Whales
tend to prefer to live in colder water, as well as coastal waters (2).
Killer Whales are also considered to be Wildlife, as they are
non-domesticated animals.
Social
History/Domestication
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| Killer Whales are commonly featured in Tribal Art (source: http://science.kqed.org/quest/2011/07/20/why-killer-whales-don’t-eat-people-where-science-and-legend-meet/) |
Many fishermen considered Killer
Whales to be threats, and nuisances because they ate their caught fish and
destroyed fishing equipment (3). Many countries, like Norway and British
Columbia, had laws that encouraged fisherman to hunt whales (4). Killer
Whales are primarily harvested for their meat and oil (4). People have
also used whales for their blubber (used in shoe polish, lipsticks, oil for oil
lamps, perfume, candles, and soaps (7)), internal organs (a component of
fertilizer, or can be used as bait), and for their hides (3). By 1981,
the Japanese, Norwegians, and Soviets had harvested almost 6,000 orcas
(3). Hunting was so prevalent, that during the late 1960’s and early
1970’s, 25% of whales captured showed signs of having been shot or injured by
hunters (4).
Up until 1973, the U.S. Navy still wrote
in its training manuals that orcas would “attack human beings at every
opportunity (3).” By the late 1960’s, attitudes towards Killer Whales became
more positive due to more orcas being displayed in aquaria globally. It
was also due to the rise of the environmental movement, which helped increase
the level of compassion, and for whales in society (4).
Now, the International Whaling Commission (IWC) protects Orcas. The IWC
was created in 1946, and is composed of 14 countries that regulate whaling in
order to manage whale stocks. In 1986, the IWC declared a moratorium on
whaling that is still in effect (3). Other legislation has included the
U.S. Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA) of 1972, and the Endangered Species
Act (ESA) of 1973.
Current Social Perceptions
A Killer Whale show gone amuck when Killer Whale eats a Pelican
(source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=52o5yV6G7tY)
Now, since commercial whaling is banned,
we primarily use Killer whales as forms of entertainment in Aquariums, Marine
Amusement parks (think SeaWorld), and in whale watching (3).
Many Aquariums and Marine Parks use Killer Whales in a variety of
entertainment shows. SeaWorld, for example, is well known for their
different Killer Whale shows, starring their main character, an idolized Killer
Whale named “Shamu” (3). If one searches “Killer Whale” on YouTube, the
first videos come up with names like “Shamu attacks and Kills Pelican during
show” (I’ve included this video above), “SeaWorld Gone Wrong” (a reference to
the 2010 killing of a SeaWorld Trainer by a Killer Whale), and “Killer Whale
Almost Kills Kid”. You could consider this as the public’s opinion about
Killer Whales. They appear to be considered as dangerous creatures that
we keep in amusement parks for our entertainment. In the video above, you can hear the people gasping as "Shamu" eats the pelican, but this is natural behavior. I think this moment was a revelation for many people, as it showed them that the lovable whales doing tricks in the tank are still predators. After the death of
SeaWorld trainer Dawn Brancheau in 2010, more people have called for Orcas to
be released from captivity, or to at least have their living conditions reformed
(12). I believe that it is still difficult for society to get past the idea that Killer Whales are "fun" or "cute", and they have do not remember that Killer Whales are strong predators. Society looks at lovable Shamu and falsely assumes that all Orcas are cute, and safe to be around. It is dangerous to forget that the Killer Whale got the "killer" part of its name from somewhere, and that they are wild, potentially dangerous creatures.
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| (source: seaworld.org) |
The positive impacts of Marine Animal
shows are that they educate people about the animal, and allows them to interact
with an animal they never would have. According to the SeaWorld website,
more than 280 million people have visited their parks since 1964.
SeaWorld believes that this gives their visitors “a sense of respect for
wildlife, especially Killer Whales (3).” According to Paul Boyle, the
Vice President of Education for Ocean Research and Conservation Association
(ORCA), the behaviors that Orcas perform in captivity are natural, and the
public enjoys seeing the Orcas (12). There has also been an extensive
amount of research on the behavior, physiology, and cognition of Killer Whales
thanks to Killer Whales being held in captivity (12). I believe that
because many people cannot interact with Killer Whales in their natural
habitat, humans have forgotten that they are wild creatures. Many people
were outraged after the death of Dawn Brancheau, but they seem have forgotten
that the Orca who attacked her is still a wild animal. Killer Whales are
not a domesticated species, and therefore, in my opinion, should not be treated
like one.
The
documentary "Blackfish" shows the dark side of working at SeaWorld and
attempts to explain why Killer Whales should not be kept in captivity (source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G93beiYiE74)
Whale watching is now a popular past time for many people, with over 13 million people going whale watching in 2009. The industry produced $2 billion in revenue in 2012, and is predicted to add an additional $400 million over the next year. More than 13,000 people are employed in the whale watching industry across the globe, and it is estimated that an additional 5,700 jobs will be created in the future (13). There has been recent criticism, however, that the loud noises produced by the boats are harming the Orcas. It is believed that the loud frequencies produced by the engines of the boats interferes with the whales' sonars, and causes them to become inefficient hunters. In fact, a recent study found that engine noise could block from 88-100% of a whale's sonar signal (14). In my opinion, many people seem conflicted about the impacts of the whale watching industry. On one hand, it allows tourists to interact personally with Orcas in their natural environment, and educates society about Orcas. On the other hand, the industry could be potentially harming the Orcas, outweighing any of the benefits produced by the eco-tourism.
I, personally, was raised as thinking of Killer Whales as animals that only lived at SeaWorld. I loved Killer Whales because I loved SeaWorld, and I was fascinated by all the different creatures there. My family lives close to SeaWorld in Texas, and whenever we go to the Orca show it is always packed. Everyone is always very excited to see the whales.
I, personally, was raised as thinking of Killer Whales as animals that only lived at SeaWorld. I loved Killer Whales because I loved SeaWorld, and I was fascinated by all the different creatures there. My family lives close to SeaWorld in Texas, and whenever we go to the Orca show it is always packed. Everyone is always very excited to see the whales.
Ethology
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Orcas commonly live in groups
called pods. Many of their behaviors are group hunting behaviors or
social behaviors. Killer Whales have a female-dominant hierarchy. Some
dominance behaviors exhibited by Orcas include head butting, jaw snapping,
biting, slapping their tails on the water, and raking, which is when a whale
scratches another with its teeth (9). Some studies show that whales can
exhibit play behaviors, even when held in captivity (9). Orcas like to
chase each other, and have been observed rolling around and thrashing
together. They have also been seen playing with inanimate objects (such
as kelp), as well as playing in the wakes made by passing boats (4). Many
whales have been seen playing with prey, as well as antagonizing other marine
mammals (9).
Different
populations of whales also target different food sources, ergo they must
utilize different hunting strategies. There are three different types of
Killer Whale:
1.Residents- live in large, common pods, mostly prey on fish (salmon is
a favorite), and have a stable social hierarchy (4). Normally the pod is
composed of related individuals that control a certain territory (8).
2.Transient- live in small groups (5-6 individuals), and do not have a
territory (8). They mostly feed on other marine mammals, have a less
rigid social hierarchy than residents, and differ physiologically and
behaviorally from residents (they have different shaped dorsal fins, and have
different vocalizations.)(4)
3.Offshore- small group of Orcas found off of British Colombia that
inhabits open water. They travel in large groups of 30-60 members (8).
Examples of Group Behaviors
Killer Whales exhibiting the "Wave
Wash" behavior
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Orcas generally socialize in periods of roughly two
hours. Orcas will dive in large groups, and for long periods while they
are socializing. This behavior is distinguished from resting because the orcas emit a large variety of sounds differing in length or pitch.
Southern groups tend to be more animated during play (they will breach more)
than their Northern relatives. Socialization is beneficial in the wild as
it helps build bonds between Orcas, as well as pass on information (4).
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| Whale beaching itself to catch a seal source: http://i.dailymail.co.uk/i/pix/2009/06/30/article-1196501-058A91BA000005DC-915_634x400.jpg |
A group of Orcas off of the Crozet Islands (located
in the Indian Ocean) will strand themselves on beaches in order to increase
their chances of catching Elephant Seals. A similar behavior has been
shown in another pod of Orcas in Patagonia. It is theorized that these
Orcas learn this unique behavior through observing their mothers perform
it. This, in turn, allows the behavior to become unique to one specific
pod (11). The behavior is beneficial to the Orcas because it increases
access to their prey.
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Some pods of Orcas have
learned a cooperative hunting behavior called “wave wash” (there is a video of
it above). This behavior is when a group of whales come together and use
their tails to create waves to knock a seal off of a piece of ice.
This behavior is beneficial because it helps the Killer Whales catch their
prey.
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Pods in
Norway hunt by forcing fish into a tight ball. This makes it easier for
the Orcas to slap their tails and stun the fish, so that they are easier to
catch (11).
Examples of Individual Behaviors
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| Whale exhibitng "Sky-hopping" source: http://www.orca-zone.com/album/pic53.html |
A behavior called “Sky-hopping”, is when
the whale sticks its head out of the water and forms a vertical line with its
body.
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| Whale exhibiting breaching behavior source: http://www.orca-zone.com/album/pic50.html |
Another behavior is called “breaching”, where the whale will
jump out of the water and then land on its side or back. Both of these
behaviors are common, and are behaviors that have been incorporated into many
marine shows at amusement parks. It has been theorized that these
behaviors are used to exert dominance during courtship, or simply allow the
whale to get a clearer view of their surroundings (8).
Emotions
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| source: http://anneminard.com/wp/2009/02/03/day-11-older-killer-whales-make-best-moms/ |
One of
the strongest emotions between whales is love. Love is considered to be a
secondary emotion, and is strong between members of a pod. The
strongest bond is said to be between a mother and child. Mothers actively direct their calf’s movements while they are young.
Depending on the pod, some calves leave their mothers once they mature; but, in
the eastern North Pacific, calves stay with their mother through adulthood (9).
It is beneficial for a mother to invest care into her calf because it
will increase the calf's chance of survival.
Killer
Whales have also been shown to grieve, and normally will try to help injured
loved ones. One scene described in the book Killer Whales (citation
number 4 below) describes the story of a boat that struck a calf. A bull,
cow, and another calf were seen helping the injured calf to the surface and
holding it up, allowing it to breathe (4). This behavior is beneficial to
the Killer Whales as it could increase the indirect fitness of the other members
of the pod (as they are all relatives). In fact, whales and
dolphins possess spindle neurons, which are similar to those found in
humans. In humans, these neurons are linked to feelings of empathy,
grief, and intuition. This information could show that Orcas possess the
same capabilities as humans (10). The fact that Killer Whales can grieve has also been a main argument against keeping them in captivity. Many captive Orcas were originally taken from their home pods, and brought to the zoos/aquariums where they now reside. It is believed by some that this is a very stressful event for the whale because they are highly social, and form tight bonds within their pods (4). It is hypothesized that the whale who attacked Dawn Brancheau (and other SeaWorld employees) was so traumatized by being separated from his pod, that he became mentally unstable, and unusually aggressive (12).
Speciesism
In my
opinion, Killer Whales are considered to have less value than humans.
There have been countless studies that keeping Killer Whales in captivity
lowers life expectancy, is poor for their health, and is an unsuitable
environment for them (12). We, as human beings, only think of what the
Killer Whales give us. Marine parks can provide entertainment for our
families, teach our children how to be compassionate about nature, and allow us
to see animals that we might never see otherwise. We treat Killer Whales
similar to the way we treat all zoo animals. I think that marine mammals
in general are treated better than some zoo animals because they are considered
to be "cute". "Cute" animals tend to hold more value
in society because society has a higher desire to protect them. For me, it can be
hard to remember that there are wild animals in those tanks, and not just a
thing to amuse me. I think this could cause many people to forget that Killer
Whales are living things. It is much easier to disregard the living
conditions of a nonhuman animal when one does not consider it to be a wild
animal. I think this causes many people to not formulate their own
opinions on Killer Whales kept in captivity, as well as allows different
companies to not always consider the living conditions of their animals.
RESOURCES:
1.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
(n.d.). Killer Whales. Retrieved from http://www.afsc.noaa.gov/nmml/education/cetaceans/killer.php
2.
WhaleFacts.org . (2013). Where do Killer Whales live? Retrieved
from http://www.whalefacts.org/where-do-killer-whales-live/
3.
SeaWorld. (n.d.). Killer Whales: Conservation and
Research. Retrieved from http://www.seaworld.org/animal-info/info-books/killer-whale/conservation.htm
4.
Balcomb, K.C., Ellis, G.M, and Ford, J.K.B. (1994). Killer
Whales. Seattle, Wa: University of Washington Press.
7.
Facey, S. (2010). Whales Can Be Used in Perfume, Soap,
and Candles. Retrieved from http://www.examiner.com/article/whales-can-be-used-perfume-soap-and-candles
8.
The Orca Zone. (2005). Social Behavior. Retrieved
from http://www.orca-zone.com/aboutorcas/behavior.html
9.
SeaWorld. (n.d.). Killer Whales: Behavior. Retrieved
from http://www.seaworld.org/animal-info/info-books/killer-whale/behavior.htm
10.
Nelson, B. (2011, Sept. 04). Do Dolphins Mourn their
Dead? Retrieved from http://www.mnn.com/earth-matters/animals/stories/do-dolphins-mourn-their-dead
11.
Marshall, M. (2012, Aug. 16). Zoologger: Cultured Killer Whales
Learn By Coping. Retrieved from http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn22186-zoologger-cultured-killer-whales-learn-by-copying.html#.UjkjIRYm9lJ
12.
Gorman, J. (2013, July 29). Smart,
Social, and Erratic in Captivity. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/30/science/smart-social-and-captive.html?pagewanted=all
13. Discovery News. (2011, Feb. 11). Whale-Watching a Booming Business. Retrieved from http://news.discovery.com/animals/whale-watching-industry.htm
14. Chasan, D.J. (2012, June 12). Whale-watching boats: no "room" for the orcas. Retrieved from http://crosscut.com/2012/06/12/animals-wildlife/108875/orcas-whale-watching-san-juan-islands/
13. Discovery News. (2011, Feb. 11). Whale-Watching a Booming Business. Retrieved from http://news.discovery.com/animals/whale-watching-industry.htm
14. Chasan, D.J. (2012, June 12). Whale-watching boats: no "room" for the orcas. Retrieved from http://crosscut.com/2012/06/12/animals-wildlife/108875/orcas-whale-watching-san-juan-islands/
